150 original practice questions and 100 flashcards covering the full NSC Geography curriculum.
Matric Geography combines map work, physical geography, and human geography into a subject that rewards genuinely curious, well-read students. Tour practice set covers all CAPS Grade 12 Geography topics: climate and weather, geomorphology (rivers, coasts, drainage), map work and aerial photo interpretation, development geography, economic geography, settlement geography, and population studies.
Map work carries significant marks in Paper 1 and is a practical skill that improves with practice, not reading. Work through past paper map extracts regularly alongside using tour question set.
Matric Geography Grade 12 — NSC Exam Prep. Covers climate and weather, geomorphology (rivers, coasts), development geography, population geography, economic geography, mapwork and aerial photo interpretation. All aligned to the CAPS curriculum.
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Q1/151
What is the Coriolis effect?
Explanation: Coriolis: Earth's rotation deflects moving air. Northern Hemisphere: rightward. Southern Hemisphere: leftward. Causes cyclones to rotate differently.
Q2/151
What is an anticyclone?
Explanation: Anticyclone: high pressure. Air descends, warms, can't hold moisture. Clear, sunny, dry weather. Winds spiral outward (clockwise in NH).
Q3/151
What is a cyclone (low pressure system)?
Explanation: Cyclone/depression: low pressure. Air rises, cools, water vapour condenses. Cloud formation, rain. Winds spiral inward (anticlockwise in NH).
Q4/151
What is an orographic/relief rainfall?
Explanation: Orographic rainfall: air hits mountain, rises, cools, condenses → rain. Leeward side (rain shadow) is dry. Common on Drakensberg.
Q5/151
What is convectional rainfall?
Explanation: Convectional: surface heats up → air rises rapidly → cools → cumulus/cumulonimbus clouds → intense thunderstorms. SA interior in summer.
Q6/151
What is frontal rainfall?
Explanation: Frontal: warm moist air meets cold dense air → warm air forced upward → cools → condenses → rain. Cold/warm fronts.
Q7/151
What is the difference between weather and climate?
Explanation: Weather: day-to-day changes. Climate: long-term averages and patterns. Climate affects how we design buildings, grow food, plan infrastructure.
Q8/151
What causes the seasons?
Explanation: Seasons: caused by Earth's 23.5° axial tilt. When tilted toward Sun = summer (more direct sunlight, longer days). Not distance.
Q9/151
What is the intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ)?
Explanation: ITCZ: converging trade winds near equator. Rising air → heavy convectional rainfall. Moves seasonally — causes wet/dry seasons in tropics.
Q10/151
What is the El Niño effect on Southern Africa?
Explanation: El Niño: warm water in central/eastern Pacific suppresses SA rainfall. Drought risk increases. La Niña: cooler Pacific = more SA rainfall.
Q11/151
What is the greenhouse effect?
Explanation: Greenhouse effect: solar energy warms Earth, Earth radiates infrared, greenhouse gases (CO2, CH4, H2O) absorb and re-emit tour heat.
Q12/151
What is enhanced greenhouse effect?
Explanation: Enhanced: human emissions add extra greenhouse gases → more heat trapped → global temperatures rise above natural levels.
Q13/151
What are the main greenhouse gases?
Explanation: Main GHGs: CO2 (fossil fuels, deforestation), CH4 (livestock, landfills), N2O (agriculture), CFCs (old refrigerants). CO2 is most significant.
Q14/151
What is the difference between mitigation and adaptation to climate change?
Explanation: Drainage basin: catchment area. All rainfall in tour area eventually flows to the river. Bounded by ridges/watersheds.
Q16/151
What is a watershed?
Explanation: Watershed/water divide: ridge or high ground separating two drainage basins. Rain falling on opposite sides flows to different systems.
Q17/151
What is river erosion — corrasion (abrasion)?
Explanation: Corrasion: sediment (sand, gravel, boulders) in water scrapes and grinds against bed and banks. Deepens and widens channel.
Q18/151
What is hydraulic action in river erosion?
Explanation: Hydraulic action: sheer force of water enters cracks, compresses air, loosens and dislodges rock. Most effective in waterfalls and rapids.
Q19/151
What is attrition in rivers?
Explanation: Attrition: sediment particles collide with each other → progressively smaller, more rounded. Material becomes sand and silt downstream.
Q20/151
What is a meander?
Explanation: Meander: river bends. Erosion on outside (cut bank). Deposition on inside (slip-off slope/point bar). Migrates over time.
Q21/151
What is an ox-bow lake?
Explanation: Ox-bow lake: meander neck narrows → flood cuts through → river straightens → abandoned meander fills with still water.
Q22/151
What is a delta?
Explanation: Delta: formed where river meets sea/lake. Slows → deposits sediment → builds up land. Examples: Nile, Niger, Mississippi deltas.
Q23/151
What is a waterfall?
Explanation: Waterfall: resistant cap rock overhangs softer rock. Hydraulic action undercuts → cap rock collapses → waterfall retreats upstream.
Q24/151
What is a gorge?
Explanation: Gorge: narrow, steep-sided. Forms when waterfall retreats upstream leaving gorge behind, or where river cuts rapidly through hard rock.
Q25/151
What is a flood plain?
Explanation: Flood plain: river deposits alluvium (fertile soil) when it floods beyond its banks. Flat, fertile land alongside river.
Explanation: Headlands: resistant rock remains as promontory. Bays: adjacent softer rock eroded faster. Differential erosion of varied rock types.
Q28/151
What is a wave-cut platform?
Explanation: Wave-cut platform: as cliff retreats, wave action cuts horizontal platform. Visible at low tide. Limits further cliff retreat.
Q29/151
What is a stack?
Explanation: Stack: sea arch roof collapses → isolated rock pillar in sea. Eventually collapses to form a stump. Classic coastal erosion sequence.
Q30/151
What is longshore drift?
Explanation: Longshore drift: swash carries sand up beach at wave angle, backwash pulls straight back. Net movement along coast. Creates spits, tombolos.
Q31/151
What is a spit?
Explanation: Spit: longshore drift deposits sand past a bend in coastline. Extends into sea. Hooked end forms due to secondary wave refraction.
Q32/151
What is urbanisation?
Explanation: Urbanisation: rural→urban population shift. Caused by rural push factors and urban pull factors. Rapid in developing countries.
Explanation: Population density: people per km². High density: Bangladesh, Netherlands. Low density: Australia, Mongolia. Indicates pressure on resources.
Q35/151
What is rural-urban migration?
Explanation: Rural-urban migration: pull factors (jobs, education, services) attract people to cities. Push factors (poverty, drought, lack of land) drive from rural areas.
Q36/151
What is the Human Development Index (HDI)?
Explanation: HDI: UNDP measure. Combines health (life expectancy), education (mean and expected years of schooling), and income (GNI per capita). 0-1 scale.
Q37/151
What is the Gini coefficient?
Explanation: Gini coefficient: 0 = everyone equal. 1 = one person has all income. South Africa has one of world's highest Gini coefficients (~0.63).
Q38/151
What is sustainable development in geography?
Explanation: Sustainable development: Brundtland (1987). Balance economic, social and environmental needs across generations. Core concept in geography.
Q39/151
What is the difference between formal and informal sectors?
Explanation: Formal sector: registered businesses, employment contracts, taxes paid. Informal: unregistered economic activities. Large informal sector in SA.
Q40/151
What is GDP (Gross Domestic Product)?
Explanation: GDP: total economic output. GDP per capita = GDP ÷ population. Used to measure and compare economic size and standard of living.
Q41/151
What is a developing country?
Explanation: Developing countries: lower GDP per capita, lower HDI, less industrialised. Examples: much of Africa, South Asia, parts of Latin America.
Q42/151
What is a developed country?
Explanation: Developed countries: high GDP per capita, high HDI, advanced industry. Examples: USA, Germany, Japan, Australia.
Q43/151
What is topographic mapwork in geography?
Explanation: Topographic mapwork: interpret 1:50 000 maps. Calculate bearings, gradients, distances. Draw cross-sections. Identify features from contours.
Q44/151
What is a contour line?
Explanation: Contour line: connects equal elevation points. SA standard contour interval = 20m on 1:50 000 maps. Closely spaced = steep slope.
Q45/151
What is a vertical interval (VI)?
Explanation: Vertical interval: height difference between adjacent contour lines. SA 1:50 000: VI = 20m. Calculate slope gradient using VI and horizontal distance.
Q46/151
What is the formula for gradient?
Explanation: Gradient = VI ÷ HD. E.g., 100m rise over 1km = 100/1000 = 1:10. Expressed as 1:X. Steeper slope = smaller denominator.
Q47/151
What is a magnetic bearing?
Explanation: Magnetic bearing: angle from magnetic north. Measured clockwise 0°-360°. Back bearing: add/subtract 180°. Used for navigation.
Q48/151
What is aerial photograph interpretation?
Explanation: Aerial photo interpretation: identify features from above. Oblique: taken at angle. Vertical: taken straight down. Note scale, shadows, patterns.
Q49/151
What is climate change evidence?
Explanation: Evidence: NASA temperature records (1.1°C rise since 1880), Arctic ice loss, sea level rise (20cm since 1900), species migration, ocean acidification.
Q50/151
What is ocean acidification?
Explanation: Ocean acidification: CO2 + H2O → H2CO3 (carbonic acid). Ocean pH has fallen from 8.2 to 8.1. Threatens coral reefs, shellfish, marine food webs.
Explanation: Net migration = immigration - emigration. Positive = more arriving than leaving. Negative = more leaving. Affects population growth.
Q53/151
What is a population pyramid?
Explanation: Population pyramid: stacked horizontal bars. Wide base = high birth rate/young population. Narrow base = ageing population. Shape shows DTM stage.
Q54/151
What is the natural increase rate?
Explanation: Natural increase = CBR - CDR. Expressed per 1,000. Positive = population grows. Negative = population shrinks from natural causes.
Q55/151
What is the crude birth rate (CBR)?
Explanation: CBR: live births per 1,000 people per year. High in developing countries (40+). Low in developed (10-12). Doesn't account for age structure.
Q56/151
What is the total fertility rate (TFR)?
Explanation: TFR: average children per woman. Replacement level = 2.1. >2.1 = growing. <2.1 = shrinking (without immigration).
Q57/151
What is life expectancy?
Explanation: Life expectancy at birth: average years expected to live. High in developed countries (80+). Lower where disease, conflict, poverty are high.
Q58/151
What are push and pull factors in migration?
Explanation: Push: drought, war, poverty, unemployment, land degradation. Pull: jobs, education, healthcare, higher wages, safety.
Q59/151
What is a refugee?
Explanation: Refugee: involuntary migrant. Flees persecution, war, violence. Protected by 1951 Refugee Convention. Different from economic migrant.
Q60/151
What is sustainable land use?
Explanation: Sustainable land use: balance productive use (farming, forestry, grazing) with conservation. Maintain soil fertility, water quality, biodiversity.
Q61/151
What is desertification?
Explanation: Desertification: land degradation in arid/semi-arid areas. Soil loses fertility, vegetation lost. Sahel, Karoo edges in SA are at risk.
Q62/151
What is deforestation?
Explanation: Deforestation: removes forest cover → soil erosion, loss of biodiversity, disruption of water cycle, release of stored carbon → climate change.
Q63/151
What is soil erosion?
Explanation: Soil erosion: topsoil removed by water (sheet, rill, gully erosion) or wind. Caused by overgrazing, deforestation, poor farming. Major problem in SA.
Q64/151
What is watershed management?
Explanation: Watershed management: protect entire drainage basin. Control land use upstream to protect water quality downstream. Prevent flooding, erosion, sedimentation.
Explanation: Agglomeration: industries cluster for economies of scale — share suppliers, transport, skilled labour, services. Reduces costs.
Q67/151
What is the multiplier effect?
Explanation: Multiplier effect: one investment creates circular economic activity. Factory employs workers → workers spend → local businesses grow → more jobs.
Q68/151
What is globalisation's effect on developing countries?
Explanation: Globalisation: can bring FDI, technology transfer, market access. Also: unequal terms of trade, environmental exploitation, loss of local industry.
Q69/151
What is foreign direct investment (FDI)?
Explanation: FDI: company in Country A invests in Country B — building factory, acquiring company. Brings capital, jobs, technology to host country.
Q70/151
What is the informal sector in developing countries?
Explanation: Informal sector: large in developing countries. Provides income but no social protection, no tax, no legal protection. Major employer in SA cities.
Explanation: Primate city: largest city is 2+ times bigger than second city. Common in developing countries. E.g., Lagos in Nigeria, Bangkok in Thailand.
Q73/151
What is a central business district (CBD)?
Explanation: CBD: heart of city. High-rise offices, retail, banks, transport hubs. Highest land values. Peak land value intersection (PLVI) at centre.
Q74/151
What is a greenfield site?
Explanation: Greenfield: previously undeveloped. Cheaper land, easier to build. Downside: loss of farmland, wildlife habitat. Common for suburban development.
Q75/151
What is a brownfield site?
Explanation: Brownfield: previously used. Often contaminated. Redevelopment reduces urban sprawl, revitalises areas. Higher cost to remediate.
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Q76/151
What is urban heat island effect?
Explanation: Urban heat island: cities absorb and retain more heat. Concrete, asphalt, dark roofs absorb radiation. Lack of trees (evapotranspiration). 3-5°C warmer.
Q77/151
What is the impact of climate change on South Africa?
Explanation: SA impacts: higher temperatures (1-3°C by 2050), more droughts in west, floods in east, sea level rise threatening coastal cities, crop yield losses.
Q78/151
What is carrying capacity in geography?
Explanation: Carrying capacity: limit to population size sustainable environment can support. Exceed it → resource depletion, environmental degradation.
Q79/151
What is the ecological footprint?
Explanation: Ecological footprint: area of land/water needed to produce resources consumed and absorb wastes. Compares consumption to Earth's biocapacity.
Q80/151
What is the difference between renewable and non-renewable resources?
Explanation: Renewable: sun, wind, water, biomass — infinite if managed sustainably. Non-renewable: fossil fuels, minerals — finite, form over geological time.
Q81/151
What is a resource conservation strategy?
Explanation: Conservation: use resources efficiently, reduce waste, protect ecosystems, transition to renewables, international agreements (Paris Agreement).
Explanation: Groundwater: stored in aquifers. Accessed by boreholes. Important in water-scarce areas. SA heavily reliant in Karoo, Northern Cape.
Q84/151
What is aquifer depletion?
Explanation: Aquifer depletion: pumping faster than recharge. Causes: land subsidence, saltwater intrusion in coastal areas, permanent loss of water supply.
Q85/151
What is photovoltaic technology in geography?
Explanation: PV technology: semiconductor cells convert photons to electrons. No emissions, no fuel cost, declining costs. Key in SA solar energy transition.
Q86/151
What is the Paris Agreement?
Explanation: Paris Agreement: 196 parties. Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs) submitted by each country. Net zero by second half of 21st century.
Q87/151
What is South Africa's vegetation biome distribution?
Explanation: SA biomes: Savanna (NW, Limpopo), Grassland (Highveld), Fynbos (Western Cape — global biodiversity hotspot), Desert (Namaqua), Karoo, Forest (patches).
Q88/151
What is a biome?
Explanation: Biome: large area with similar climate and dominant vegetation. SA has 6 biomes. Fynbos is a global biodiversity hotspot.
Q89/151
What is the Great Escarpment in South Africa?
Explanation: Great Escarpment: semi-circular rim of interior plateau. Drakensberg is highest section. Separates highveld (interior) from lowveld/coastal areas.
Q90/151
What is the Drakensberg?
Explanation: Drakensberg: highest mountains in southern Africa (Thabana Ntlenyana: 3,482m). Source of major rivers (Orange, Thukela, Vaal).
Q91/151
What is a rain shadow?
Explanation: Rain shadow: leeward/inland side of mountain. Air descends → warms → relative humidity falls → dry conditions. E.g., Little Karoo behind Swartberg.
Q92/151
What is the Benguela Current's effect?
Explanation: Benguela Current: cold, northward flowing. Cools West Coast. Causes aridity (desert conditions in Namaqualand). But upwelling creates rich marine life.
Q93/151
What is insolation?
Explanation: Insolation: solar energy received at Earth's surface. Higher at equator (direct sun). Lower at poles (oblique angle). Drives all weather systems.
Q94/151
What is GDP per capita?
Explanation: GDP per capita: total GDP ÷ population. Crude measure of average living standard. Better than GDP alone for comparing countries.
Q95/151
What is the difference between GNP and GDP?
Explanation: GDP: within borders. GNP: by nationals anywhere. For SA: GNP includes remittances from SA workers abroad. GDP excludes them.
Q96/151
What is foreign aid?
Explanation: Foreign aid: official development assistance (ODA). Bilateral (country to country) or multilateral (via IMF, World Bank, UN). Grants or concessional loans.
Q97/151
What is debt in developing countries?
Explanation: External debt: borrowed from foreign creditors. High debt servicing (interest repayments) crowds out development spending. Major obstacle to development.
Explanation: Block mountain/horst: uplifted block between normal faults. Drakensberg has fault-controlled sections. Rhine Graben in Germany.
Q105/151
What is a volcano?
Explanation: Volcano: magma erupts as lava. Shield (gentle, fluid lava), composite/stratovolcano (explosive, steep). Hotspots: Hawaii. Boundaries: Pacific Ring of Fire.
Q106/151
What is the Ring of Fire?
Explanation: Ring of Fire: 40,000 km horseshoe around Pacific. Most active seismic/volcanic zone. Where Pacific Plate meets other plates. Japan, Philippines, Chile.
Q107/151
What is an earthquake focus and epicentre?
Explanation: Focus (hypocentre): where earthquake energy is released underground. Epicentre: surface point directly above. Damage greatest at epicentre.
Q108/151
What is the Richter scale?
Explanation: Richter scale: logarithmic. Magnitude 6 = 10× more energy than 5. 7.0+ = major earthquake. Now largely replaced by moment magnitude scale (Mw).
Q109/151
What is weathering?
Explanation: Weathering: rocks broken down where they are. Physical (freeze-thaw, thermal expansion), Chemical (oxidation, carbonation), Biological (roots, lichens).
Q110/151
What is erosion in geography?
Explanation: Erosion: material removed from source and transported. Agents: water (rivers, rain), wind (deserts), ice (glaciers), gravity (mass movement).
Q111/151
What is mass movement?
Explanation: Mass movement: gravity pulls slope material downslope. Triggered by: heavy rain (saturates soil), earthquakes, steep slopes, removal of vegetation.
Q112/151
What is a glacier?
Explanation: Glacier: flows downslope under gravity. Valley glacier carves U-shaped valley (vs river's V-shape). Creates horns, arêtes, cirques, moraines.
Q113/151
What is glacial deposition?
Explanation: Glacial till: unsorted, unstratified debris left by melting glacier. Drumlins, moraines, erratic boulders. No sorting by size unlike water deposition.
Q114/151
What is a karst landscape?
Explanation: Karst: formed by chemical weathering (carbonation) of limestone. Features: sinkholes, caves (stalactites, stalagmites), dry valleys, springs.
Q115/151
What is sustainable agriculture?
Explanation: Sustainable agriculture: crop rotation, intercropping, integrated pest management, conservation tillage, water harvesting. Maintains soil health.
Explanation: Irrigation: essential in semi-arid areas like Karoo, Orange River Valley. Drip irrigation most efficient. Risk: waterlogging, salinisation if mismanaged.
Q118/151
What is salinisation of soil?
Explanation: Salinisation: irrigation water evaporates, leaves salts behind. Renders soil infertile. Major problem in Orange River irrigation schemes.
Q119/151
What is the water table?
Explanation: Water table: varies seasonally. Rises after rain (recharge), falls during drought. Boreholes must reach below water table to access groundwater.
Q120/151
What is eutrophication?
Explanation: Eutrophication: nutrients (nitrates, phosphates from agriculture/sewage) → algae blooms → block sunlight → algae die → decomposed by bacteria → oxygen depleted → fish die.
Q121/151
What is acid rain?
Explanation: Acid rain: pH < 5.6. Sulphur dioxide (coal power, industry) + nitrogen oxides (vehicles) + water → sulphuric and nitric acid in rain.
Q122/151
What is biodiversity?
Explanation: Biodiversity: genetic (within species), species (number of species), ecosystem (variety of habitats). SA is megadiverse — Fynbos has 9,000+ plant species.
Q123/151
What is an invasive species?
Explanation: Invasive species: introduced (deliberately or accidentally), outcompete native species. Wattles, Port Jackson willow in SA fynbos. Cost billions to manage.
Q124/151
What is conservation in geography?
Explanation: Conservation: active management to maintain biodiversity and ecological function. Includes protected areas, sustainable use, restoration.
Q125/151
What is South Africa's protected area network?
Explanation: SANParks: 20 national parks including Kruger, Table Mountain, Addo Elephant. Plus provincial reserves, private game reserves, marine protected areas.
Q126/151
What is the Orange River?
Explanation: Orange River (Gariep): 2,200 km. Rises in Lesotho Drakensberg. Flows west to Atlantic. Major irrigation, Lesotho Highlands Water Project supplies Gauteng.
Q127/151
What is the Lesotho Highlands Water Project?
Explanation: LHWP: series of dams in Lesotho mountains. Tunnels transfer water to Vaal Dam. Provides ~40% of Gauteng's water. Also generates electricity for Lesotho.
Q128/151
What is a river's load?
Explanation: River load: dissolved (minerals in solution), suspended (silt, clay in water), bed load (sand, gravel, boulders rolling/bouncing along bed).
Q129/151
What is a natural hazard?
Explanation: Natural hazard: earthquakes, volcanoes, floods, cyclones, droughts, wildfires. Becomes a disaster when it impacts human society.
Q130/151
What is disaster risk reduction?
Explanation: DRR: reduce exposure, vulnerability and improve resilience BEFORE disasters strike. Much cheaper than post-disaster recovery.
Q131/151
What is land use planning?
Explanation: Land use planning: controls where activities happen. Prevent building on flood plains. Buffer zones around hazardous areas. Zoning laws.
Q132/151
What is the formal/informal settlement distinction?
Explanation: Gentrification: property values rise, original low-income residents priced out. Cape Town (Bo-Kaap, Woodstock). Complex: improves areas but causes displacement.
Q135/151
What is a census?
Explanation: Census: SA conducts every 10 years (2001, 2011, 2021). Collects: age, sex, race, language, education, employment, housing. Informs policy.
Q136/151
What is infant mortality rate (IMR)?
Explanation: IMR: deaths under 1 per 1,000 live births. Sensitive indicator of health care quality, sanitation, nutrition. Low in developed countries (<5). High in some developing (50+).
Q137/151
What is maternal mortality rate?
Explanation: Maternal mortality: reflects quality of healthcare for women. SA: about 120/100,000. Very low in Norway (<5). Key SDG target.
Q138/151
What is the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)?
Explanation: SDGs: 17 goals, 169 targets, achieve by 2030. Include: no poverty, zero hunger, quality education, clean water, climate action, reduced inequalities.
Q139/151
What is foreign exchange and its importance?
Explanation: Foreign exchange: rand weakens → exports cheaper (good for tourism, mining) but imports more expensive (fuel, machinery). Affects inflation.
Q140/151
What is the primary, secondary, tertiary sector model?
Explanation: Quaternary: knowledge economy activities. IT, R&D, financial services, consulting. Growing in developed economies. SA developing tour sector.
Q142/151
What is special economic zone (SEZ) in South Africa?
Explanation: SA SEZs: Coega (Port Elizabeth), Richards Bay, East London. Tax incentives, simplified regulations, infrastructure. Attract manufacturing investment.
Q143/151
What is the difference between weather station and Stevenson screen?
Explanation: Stevenson screen: standardised conditions for temperature measurement. White (reflects sunlight), louvred (air circulation), 1.2m above ground, away from buildings.
Q144/151
What is a synoptic weather map?
Explanation: Synoptic map: isobars (equal pressure lines), fronts (cold/warm), H (high), L (low), wind direction. Read weather patterns from it.
Explanation: Albedo: white/light surfaces reflect more radiation (ice: 0.8), dark surfaces absorb more (ocean: 0.06). Melting ice → lower albedo → more warming (positive feedback).
Q147/151
What is a positive feedback loop in climate change?
Explanation: Positive feedback: amplifies change. Ice melts → less reflection → more warming → more ice melts. Also: permafrost thaws → releases methane → more warming.
Q148/151
What is a negative feedback loop in climate?
Explanation: Negative feedback: dampens change. Warming → more evaporation → more clouds → some reflect sunlight → slight cooling. Stabilises climate somewhat.
Q149/151
What is carbon sequestration?
Explanation: Carbon sequestration: natural (forests, oceans, peatlands) or technological (CCS: capture CO2 at source, inject into geological formations).
Q150/151
What is a carbon tax?
Explanation: Carbon tax: makes emitting CO2 costly → businesses invest in cleaner technology. SA: R159/tonne CO2e (2022). Revenue funds green projects.
Q151/151
What is the Kyoto Protocol?
Explanation: Kyoto Protocol: 1997, effective 2005. Binding targets for developed (Annex I) countries. USA never ratified. Replaced by Paris Agreement.
Earth has four main spheres: Lithosphere (the solid rocky layer including the crust and upper mantle), Hydrosphere (all water — oceans, rivers, ice, groundwater), Atmosphere (the layer of gases — nitrogen 78%, oxygen 21%, other gases 1%), and Biosphere (all living organisms and their environments). Geographers study how these interact.
Earthquakes are caused by the movement of tectonic plates along fault lines. When stress builds up at plate boundaries, it is released suddenly — causing seismic waves. Types of plate boundaries: Convergent (plates collide — one subducts, forming trenches and mountains), Divergent (plates move apart — forming rift valleys and mid-ocean ridges), Transform (plates slide past each other — e.g., San Andreas Fault).
Weather is the short-term atmospheric conditions at a specific place and time — temperature, rainfall, wind, humidity today. Climate is the average weather conditions of a region over a long period (at least 30 years). South Africa has mainly a subtropical climate but significant regional variation from the Cape Mediterranean climate to the Kalahari semi-desert.
The water (hydrological) cycle: Evaporation (sun heats water, converting it to vapour), Transpiration (plants release water vapour), Condensation (water vapour cools and forms clouds), Precipitation (rain, snow, hail falls), Infiltration (water soaks into soil), Surface runoff (water flows into rivers), Groundwater (water stored underground). The cycle distributes freshwater globally.
Three types of rainfall: Convectional (heated air rises, cools, condenses — common in summer thunderstorms in the interior), Orographic/Relief (air forced up a mountain, cools on windward side bringing rain, dry 'rain shadow' on leeward side), Frontal (cold and warm air masses meet, warm air rises over cold — common in Western Cape in winter).
Globalisation is the increasing interconnectedness of the world's economies, cultures, and populations through trade, investment, technology, migration, and communication. Benefits: increased trade, technology transfer, economic growth. Challenges: exploitation of developing countries, cultural homogenisation, environmental degradation, inequality. South Africa is integrated into the global economy through mining, agriculture, and manufacturing exports.
Urbanisation is the process by which the proportion of a population living in urban areas increases. In South Africa, urbanisation has been rapid — approximately 68% of the population lives in urban areas. Effects: economic growth opportunities, strain on infrastructure (housing, water, electricity, transport), growth of informal settlements, environmental pollution, social challenges including crime.
Soil erosion is the removal of topsoil by water, wind, or human activity. Types: Sheet erosion (thin layer removed uniformly), Rill erosion (small channels), Gully erosion (deep channels). Prevention: contour ploughing (ploughing along the contour, not up/down slopes), terracing, strip cropping, cover crops, afforestation, and building gabions or check dams in gullies.